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Birthday attacks are a class of brute-force techniques used in an attempt to solve a class of cryptographic hash function
problems. These methods take advantage of functions which, when supplied with a random input, return one of 
equally
likely values. By repeatedly evaluating the function for different inputs, the same output is expected to be
obtained after about 
evaluations.
See also Birthday Problem
References
RSA Laboratories. ``Question 95. What is a Birthday Attack'' and ``Question 96. How Does the Length of a Hash Value Affect Security?''
http://www.rsa.com/rsalabs/faq/.
van Oorschot, P. and Wiener, M. ``A Known Plaintext Attack on Two-Key Triple Encryption.'' In
Advances in Cryptology--Eurocrypt '90. New York: Springer-Verlag, pp. 366-377, 1991.
Yuval, G. ``How to Swindle Rabin.'' Cryptologia 3, 187-189, Jul. 1979.