Journal of Social Development in Africa (1999) 14,2,109-118 
Child Abuse and Child Labour Across 
Culture: Implications for Research, 
Prevention and Policy Implementation 
CHRIS A IKE & KWAKU TWUMASI-ANKRAH * 
ABSTRACT 
The article presents an overview of the global problem of child abuse and child 
labour, with emphasis on the implications of the issues for research, prevention, 
and policy decision. It is argued that for the definition of child abuse and child 
labour to be meaningful, the definition should be culturally relevant. As evidenced 
by many empirical studies, child labour is experienced by millions of children in 
Africa (Nigeria, in particular in the context of this article) and other developing 
countries. It has many deleterious consequences for most of the children. Recommendations 
for the prevention of child labour syndrome are summarised in terms 
of action research, education and public enlightenment, legislative measures, 
structural adjustment, and adjustment in value orientations that generate poverty 
and promote merchandisation and exploitation of children. 
Introduction 
Child abuse and child labour represent significant aspects of p/oblems facing the 
present generation of children in the world we live in today. In the African 
traditional value system, a child is the most treasured object and constitutes the 
focal point in life. Some people view life without a child as meaningless, and to this 
effectsomehowsomethingmustbedonetohaveachild,evenifitmeans increasing 
the number of wives one has or consulting traditional healers to facilitate the 
process of getting a child. This remark credited to Onyango was made at the time 
of her appointment as the Interim Chair of the African Network for the Prevention 
and Protection against Child Abuse and Neglect (ANPPC AN); (Diaz, 1986).In the 
same token, a previous Deputy Director of the World Health Organisation, Lambo 
(1982), at a meeting of mental health practitioners, described the African child as 
the child who finds himself or herself being born in a very welcoming and accepting 
culture. Everybody is ready for his or her arrival and his or her basic needs are even 
met before it happens. 
* Drs Ike &Twumasi-Ankrah, Psychology Program, Departmentof Social andBehavioral 
Sciences, Fayetteville State University, 1200 Murchison Road, Newbold Station, 
Fayetteville, North Carolina 28301-4298, Fax: (910) 486-1378;Email: 
Ike@chl.uncfsu.edu
110 Chris A Ike & Kwaku Twumasi-Ankrah 
The above observations translate into a paradox, especially to non-Africans and 
proponents of the movement against child abuse, to the effect that the same child 
whose arrival is often celebrated with passion eventually becomes an object of 
abuse and neglect, exploitation, war, and poverty, in the very hands of the same 
culture that gave birth to it It seems highly probable that children in many parts of 
the world are experiencing similar social problems. However, the problems may 
vary according to geographic regions and the nature of society in which the child 
resides. The world's attention is now being directed toward the identification and 
elimination of all kinds of child abuse. 
Though the concern about child abuse seems to be world-wide, its prevention 
has continued to be elusive. Institutions, professional organisations, and motivated 
individuals are beginning to show greater commitment to this problem since the 
last decade. A particular reference is made to the landmark study credited to Kemp 
and his colleagues. In 1962 the late Professor C Henry Kemp, a paediatrician, and 
his colleagues published a paper entided "The Battered Child Syndrome" - a term 
"...to characterise a clinical condition in young children who have received 
serious physical abuse, generally from a parent or foster parent" (Kemp, 
etal,1962). 
This paper by Kemp and his associates was revolutionary because physicians had 
great difficulty in believing that parents could have attacked their children and they 
attempted to obliterate such beliefs from their minds, even in the face of obvious 
circumstantial evidence. 
Kemp's landmark study stimulated a number of researches along the lines of 
causality, detection, treatment, rehabilitation, protection, and prevention at the 
individual, family, and community levels. Many early and recent researchers (eg, 
Gil, 1975; Gelles, 1978; Obikeze, 1986; Okpara, 1986; Claussen & Crittenden, 
1991; McGee, et al, 1991; Becker, et al, 1995) on these issues have produced 
abundant evidence demonstrating copious atrocities against children in today's 
world. In the thinking of these researchers, child abuse and neglect is no longer 
considered only as a local issue but rather as a global problem, requiring the 
attention of every country. The discussions that follow reveal some of the 
organised efforts to wage an active war against the abnormality of child abuse and 
child labour in various contexts.
Child Abuse & Child Labour Across Culture 111 
International Movement Against Child Abuse and Child Labour 
In pursuit of the goal to check the rising trend in child abuse and child labour a group 
of people from Europe and the United States met in Italy in 1975 to discuss the 
possibility of establishing, on an international level, an organisation that could 
dedicate itself to the struggle against the abuse, neglect and exploitation of 
children. Out of this meeting, the International Society for Prevention of Child 
Abuse and Neglect (ISPCAN) w a s bom (Ebigbo et al, 1986). Its aim was to 
facilitate the exchange of information and experience between people from many 
countries, wherever an effort is being made to combat the growing tragedy of child 
abuse. 
The Organisation hoped that the expertise of professionals including medical 
doctors, nurses, psychologists, social workers, legal practitioners, and many others 
could positively impact those who must face this terrible problem each day in their 
own regions. The initial responsibility was to hold an International Congress every 
two years with emphasis on the multi-disciplinary character of the organisation. 
This resulted in the International Congress in Geneva 1976, London 1978, 
Amsterdam 1981, Paris 1982, Montreal 1984, and Sydney 1986. At the Congress 
in Paris 1982, attention was directed to the African countries. At the 5th Congress 
in Montreal a special seminar supported by the World Health Organisation (WHO) 
was organised especially for members from developing countries (Ebigbo, et al, 
1986). 
The African Networkfor the Prevention and Protection against Child Abuse and 
Neglect (ANPPCAN) was born in September 1984 in Montreal at the 5th 
International Congress on the Prevention of Abuse and Neglect. One of its 
objectives was to set up a task force on African Network which would explore the 
phenomenon of child abuse and neglect in the African context (Ebigbo, et al, 1986). 
The work of this committee gave rise to the First International Workshop on Child 
Labour in Africa, which took place in Enugu, Nigeria, in April 1986. 
This paper is an attempt to critically evaluate the problems of child labour in 
Africa, with specific focus on exploitative child labour in Nigeria. Nigeria appears 
to have acquired a reputation for human abuse problems, involving unethical and 
exploitative attitudes toward working children. Evidence from recent studies 
shows that the abuse on children by way of child labour has reached an astronomical 
proportion since the last two decades (Amatu, 1981; Ekwe, 1986; Obikeze, 
1986; Onwuzuirke, 1986; Akanne, 1986). The Nigerian international workshop 
cited above provided substantial evidence regarding the wide-spread nature of
112 Chris A Ike & Kwaku Twumasi-Ankrah 
child labour in Africa. Apart from examining the definitional issues, also attention 
will be given to preventive measures and recommendations for policy implementations 
against child labour in Africa. 
Definitional Issues Involving Child Abuse and Child Labour 
Child abuse 
There are obvious issues regarding the definitions of both child abuse and child 
labour which deserve to be discussed. The varying expectations and goals of 
childrearing, which different cultures have for their children, underscore the 
observation that the definition of child abuse can be a complicated exercise. 
Complications in definition tend to arise when one approaches the definition from 
one-dimensional or one cultural viewpoint, without giving much consideration to 
the multicultural or multiracial realities in the meanings attached to the various 
approaches to child upbringing. As posed by Onwuzurike (1986), '7s child abuse 
a cultural norm or misapplied term?" If it is a norm, one would expect that the 
definitional standards applicable to the concepts should reflect the standards and 
values applicable to a given culture. Otherwise, the definer should strive to avoid 
a global or non-culture relevant definition. 
Many literatures on child abuse (Fontana, 1964;Gil, 1975;Daniel, 1976; Kemp, 
etal, 1962; Wolfe, Reppucci & Hart, 1995) have emphasised either the physical or 
the emotional concomitants of the construct This writer actually subscribes to that 
kind of focus so long as the definition of child abuse concept meets the psychological 
criteria for abnormality or maladjustment with respect to the child. Otherwise, 
it may create problems in the perspective of cultural norm and value-orientation. 
For instance, Diaz (1986), while presenting a workshop on child abuse in Nairobi, 
cited a confidential comment by an influential woman participant to the effect that 
'Wo African mother will abuse and neglect her own child!" 
Even though such a comment appears naive, it is important in the sense that it 
reveals the sincerity in the affection African mothers have toward their children. 
On the other hand, the statement may be interpreted as a manifestation of 
conceptual error on the part of the woman, a demonstration of lack of knowledge 
about child abuse and neglect, and perhaps a denial mechanism regarding the 
realities of the issue. The implication is that different cultures interpret child abuse 
in different ways. Thus, lack of appreciation of the cultural differences in the 
meaning, incidence, and character of child abuse reinforces the lingering controversy 
regarding the definition of the construct. 
Finally, child abuse is an amorphous and multifaceted phenomenon. It would be 
difficult to come to grips with a single definition that embraces the various
Child Abuse & Child Labour Across Culture 113 
dimensions of this phenomenon. Since definition preempts the nature of preventive 
paradigm for any form of child abuse, an operational definition would 
minimise the difficulties of a global definition, as well as reduce the negative 
impact of ambitious holistic preventive measures which is a sine qua non for such 
definition. 
The psychological impact of child labour can never be overestimated. Childhood 
is the period of personality formation. The physical and emotional stress of 
work, combined with the denial of opportunities to play or interact fully socially 
with peers and to explore the world, could doom a child to a personality and 
behavioural maladjustment. Furthermore, emotional abuse and neglect, separation 
from family, monotony, and the burdens of premature responsibility, will most 
likely have some permanent adverse impact on the working child. 
Recommendations 
Recommendations for policy implementation are suggested in the following 
important areas: research, public enlightenment campaign, professional organisations, 
compulsory free primary education, change in social structures, children 
advocacy centre, legislative measures and law enforcement. 
Research 
Research is the key to public enlightenment as public enlightenment is the key to 
prevention. This means that if people became more aware about the dangers of 
child labour, it will be easier for them to prevent the conditions that fester it. In the 
same token, social research must identify the various dimensions and consequences 
of child labour, which serve as ingredients for public enlightenment. 
Therefore, any policy decision on the prevention of child labour in Africa should 
include as a priority the establishment of an interdisciplinary, collaborative and 
cooperative research program, involving psychologists, social workers, paediatricians, 
psychiatrists, nurses, sociologists, etc, who should cooperate in the investigation 
of the impact of child labour on the child's physical and mental health. Data 
obtained from such undertakings would serve as raw materials for the development 
of relevant preventive policy on child labour. 
Public Enlightenment Campaign 
Intensive public enlightenment campaign strategies should be articulated as a 
means of educating the masses about the phenomenon of child labour. These 
strategies ought to be predicated on research findings and should be directed 
toward revamping societal conflicts arising from the adherence to a more resiric-
Child Abuse & Child Labour Across Culture 115 
be encouraged to form cooperatives which will help them to sell their farm 
products. Such organisations will enable women to have resources or income and 
to develop their capacity to utilise their income to improve their health and the 
health of their children, as well as fulfil their psychological, social, and educational 
responsibilities toward their children. 
Compulsory Free Primary Education 
To eradicate the widespread forms of child labour would require a strong government 
measure involving a compulsory, free primary education for all children. Of 
particular importance is the education of rural mothers and girls which, as reported 
by Ike & Twumasi-Ankrah (1996), is in a very deplorable state. Of no less 
importance, is the need for vocational training for the youth. It is expected that 
formal education and vocational training will not only equip individuals with the 
necessary skills for personal growth and group survival, but will also eliminate 
maternal dependence on children for economic survival of the family. 
Legislative Measures 
Though laws have been enacted to protect children from exploitation, these laws 
fall short of enforcement by the judicial and law enforcement system. The 
International Labour Organisation (ILO), since 1973 and for decades, has been the 
most outspoken advocate of legislation for protection of children from any sort of 
exploitation. As Naidu (1986) pointed out, though some countries have ratified the 
ILO conventions, a large number of countries are yet to do so. Even those countries 
who have ratified some of the conventions did not implement fully in their states 
what they had rati fied (Naidu, 1986). It is vital for every government to evoke and 
rededicate itself to the Child Labour Laws that exist in their respective regions. 
Conclusion 
In articulating the issues regarding child abuse and the related exploitative child 
labour, experts must fight shy of the obsession of global definition of the issue. The 
definition of child labour or child abuse should be operationalised to reflect the 
cultural diversity and cultural meanings of the concepts. Child labour is practised 
in many countries in different ways. It appears to be even practised in greater 
frequency in Africa and many developing societies. Its impact takes a toll on the 
mental and physical health of all children involved. The socioeconomic structure 
of society that creates poverty, coupled with ignorance and lack of education on the 
part of parents, appears to be the factor that causes the greatest harm on children. 
The Government is called upon for quick response to the problem of child labour 
by promulgating laws that define the kind of work children should be expected to 
perform that would not conflict with school time. Any such policy should specify 
the maximum duration of child work, and the means of direct reward to the child. 
Finally, if child labour should prevail, its primary purpose should be for the 
physical, psychological, social and economic enhancement of the child's wellbeing, 
rather than for the sel fish interest of the exploiters and perpetrators of child 
labour.
Child Abuse & Child Labour Across Culture 115 
be encouraged to form cooperatives which will help them to sell their farm 
products. Such organisations will enable women to have resources or income and 
to develop their capacity to utilise their income to improve their health and the 
health of their children, as well as fulfil their psychological, social, and educational 
responsibilities toward their children. 
Compulsory Free Primary Education 
To eradicate the widespread forms of child labour would require a strong government 
measure involving a compulsory, free primary education for all children. Of 
particular importance is the education of rural mothers and girls which, as reported 
by Ike & Twumasi-Ankrah (1996), is in a very deplorable state. Of no less 
importance, is the need for vocational training for the youth. It is expected that 
formal education and vocational training will not only equip individuals with the 
necessary skills for personal growth and group survival, but will also eliminate 
maternal dependence on children for economic survival of the family. 
Legislative Measures 
Though laws have been enacted to protect children from exploitation, these laws 
fall short of enforcement by the judicial and law enforcement system. The 
International Labour Organisation (ILO), since 1973 and for decades, has been the 
most outspoken advocate of legislation for protection of children from any sort of 
exploitation. As Naidu (1986) pointed out, though some countries have ratified the 
ILO conventions, a large number of countries are yet to do so. Even those countries 
who have ratified some of the conventions did not implement fully in their states 
what they had ratified (Naidu, 1986). It is vital for every government to evoke and 
rededicate itself to the Child Labour Laws that exist in their respective regions. 
Conclusion 
In articulating the issues regarding child abuse and the related exploitative child 
labour, experts must fight shy of the obsession of global definition of the issue. The 
definition of child labour or child abuse should be operationalised to reflect the 
cultural diversity and cultural meanings of the concepts. Child labour is practised 
in many countries in different ways. It appears to be even practised in greater 
frequency in Africa and many developing societies. Its impact takes a toll on the 
mental and physical health of all children involved. The socioeconomic structure 
of society that creates poverty, coupled with ignorance and lack of education on the 
part of parents, appears to be the factor that causes the greatest harm on children. 
The Government is called upon for quick response to the problem of child labour 
by promulgating laws that define the kind of work children should be expected to 
perform that would not conflict with school time. Any such policy should specify 
the maximum duration of child work, and the means of direct reward to the child. 
Finally, if child labour should prevail, its primary purpose should be for the 
physical, psychological, social and economic enhancement of the child's wellbeing, 
rather than for the selfish interest of the exploiters and perpetrators of child 
labour.
THE COURSE OF CHILD LABOR AND CHILD ABUSE 
SKuational Factors 
Structural Inequalities 
Displacement Drought & 
Famine 
s. Armed 
Conflict 
Military 
Conscription 
Political Violence 
Results 
ABJECT 
POVERTY 
Malnutrition 
Infection 
Disease 
O\ 
Merchandization J-l 
Long-term Short-term 
Sexual 
Exploitation, 
Forced Lab 
\ 
Pawning 
Trafficking 
1 
Exploitation 
Child 
Labor 
3- 
S3 
i 
. 
I 
1 
Voluntary 
offering 
of child 
for money 
1 
Crime by 
Parent 
Educational, 
mental, 
emotional, 
Physical 
ineptitude 
i 
Imprisonment 
Abandonment 
and 
neglect of 
children
Child Abuse & Child Labour Across Culture 117 
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