Journal of Social Development in Africa (1998), 13,2,35-43 
Social Policy and Research Environment 
in Zambia 
GILBERT P C MASIYE; ROBERT TEMBO; BENSON 
CHISANGA; ALLAST MWANZA * 
ABSTRACT 
This paper has discussed a number of issues on the nature and state of social policy 
practice and research in Zambia. One interesting observation is that there is no 
specific conception of social policy in Zambia, but rather conceived in terms of 
instruments of social policy such as health and educational services. Though the 
government policy is to promote stakeholder participation, there is no strong 
evidence of active participation in the policy formulation process. Similarly, policy 
implementation does not reflect policy guidelines partly due to inadequate human 
and financial resources; inadequate technical data; and political interference. It has 
also been noted that in the recent years, social and economic policies have not been 
conceived as complementary in nature. Economic policy has assumed a centre 
stage against the backdrop of adverse economic conditions. Social policy has been 
conceived in terms of mitigating the negative impacts of the structural adjustment 
programme (SAP) which has been instituted to restore economic prosperity. 
With regard to the state of social policy research, the problem areas for research, 
and the methods and techniques employed, have been appropriate for social policy 
practice in Zambia. However, problems relating to data analysis, presentation of 
findings and utilisation in policy formulation and implementation need to be 
addressed for social research to become an important tool for social policy practice 
in Zambia. 
Introduction 
There are various conceptions of social policy. As an aspect of public policy, social 
policy is conceived in general terms as being concerned with all the organised 
efforts of a society to remedy or prevent problems for the well-being of its members 
in both a residual and institutional sense (Ziter, 1993). In this paper an holistic 
conception of social policy has been adopted. It is conceived as being concerned 
* Department of Social Development Studies, University of Zambia, P O Box 32379, 
Lusaka, Zambia, Fax No: (260 1) 290320.
36 GPC Masiye; R Tembo; B Chisanga; A Mwanza 
with the development of a just, equal and prosperous society. This means that social 
policy is not only concerned with the sectors usually defined as "social" such as 
health, education, social welfare, and social security; but also includes sectors 
more commonly identified as "economic" such as employment, infrastructure and 
housing (World Bank, 1993). 
Historically, social policy formulation, implementation and evaluation in 
Zambia have been mainly the domain of the central government However, this 
approach has been criticised for excluding the lower organs of government and 
other stakeholders in the private and community sectors. It has also been criticised 
for encouraging over-dependency by the peopleongovernmenthand-outs. Despite 
this criticism, social policy formulation and implementation, based on incremental 
responses to social needs, have played a critical role in addressing a number of 
social problems. For instance, during the first decade of Zambia's independence, 
pragmatic social policies were formulated aimed at extending social service 
provision to those areas which had been severely neglected by the colonial 
administration. There was heavy investment in education and health sectors; 
promotion of social equality; and narrowing the gap between the rich and the poor. 
The guiding principle for social policy formulation and implementation during this 
period was the philosophy of Humanism, which stressed communal response to 
social issues and commitment to the equitable distribution of national resources. 
However, the social policy benefits of the first decade were short-lived. The 
trouble began to set in during the mid-1970s. The fall in the world's copper prices; 
high oil prices; increasing international economic protectionism; and inappropriate 
domestic macro-economic policies have had negative impact on economic 
growth and social policy environment. In an effort to restore economic prosperity, 
the government adopted economic measures generally referred to the economic 
structural adjustment programme (SAP). Under this programme, the government 
of the Movement of for Multi-party Democracy (MMD) has adopted the strategy 
of 'disengagement' regarding the provision of social services. This is manifested 
through policy measures such as cost-sharing (user fees); reduction in budgetary 
allocation for social services in real terms, cash budget system of public finance; 
and decontrolled pricing regime. The strategy of the government is predicated on 
the principle that the welfare of the public is primarily the responsibility of the 
individual, families and the communities in which they live (Tembo, 1993). The 
role of the government will be limited to the formulation of policies and programmes 
aimed at "creating an enabling environment" for economic growth. The 
assumption is that the economic growth will generate job opportunities which will 
enable individuals and families to become economically and socially self-sufficient, 
and reduce poverty. As a consequence of the foregoing, the function of social 
Policy, as will be discussed later in this paper, has been sidelined by that of
Social Policy and Research Environment in Zambia 37 
economic policy, despite the unprecedented insurgence of mass poverty brought 
about partly by the structural adjustment programme. The fact that social and 
economic policies should complement each other for a sound and balanced 
national development seems to have been missed. 
This paper reviews the social policy and research environment in Zambia over 
the past ten years. It discusses a number of issues including the key players in social 
policy formulation and implementation; linkages between social and economic 
policies; and the strengths and gaps of social policy studies. The paper is based on 
a recently completed study on the nature and state of social policy practice and 
research in Zambia. 
The study on the nature and state of social policy practice and research in 
Zambia was qualitative in nature in order to collect data that reflected the actual 
situation on the ground in terms of the state and nature of policy practice. Data was 
collected through a series of unstructured interviews with the people most 
knowledgeable about and involved in social policy issues. The sample was drawn 
from the government ministries and non-governmental organisations in four 
provincial centres, mainly Lusaka; Ndola; Kasama; and Chipata. A total of 34 
organisations were included in the sample. Key policy makers and administrators 
were the informants in each organisation. Secondary data was obtained through an 
extensive review of relevant documents. In addition, an inventory of social policy 
research was made focusing on the methodologies employed and the major 
findings. 
Policy Formulation and Implementation 
It has been observed that there is no specific conception of social policy in Zambia 
and that social policy goals are enunciated at a level of such generality that they do 
not become working objectives. Even the social sector itself has not been fully 
conceptualised. Most policy actors conceive social policy in terms of provision of 
social services such as education, health, and housing which are basically instruments 
of social policy. Similarly, the study indicated that although efforts have 
been made to promote popular participation in policy implementation, the government 
does not foster broad-based participation in the social policy formulation 
process. For instance, the civil societies have no direct effect on the formulation of 
policies. They only play an advocacy role, which in some cases, has proved to be 
fruitful. 
In terms of policy implementation, there are some gaps observedbetween policy 
and programmes, as implementation does not reflect the policy guidelines partly 
due to the inadequate data and financial resources to facilitate policy implementation.
38 GPCMasiye;R Tembo;B Chisanga;AMwanza 
Several factors contributing to the inability by the government and the civil 
societies to respond adequately to the needs of the Zambian society have been 
identified. The factors which are both political and technical in nature include the 
following: inadequate financial material and human resources; difficulties in 
operationalising policy objectives and absence of implementation guidelines; poor 
co-ordination and fragmentation in service delivery; inadequate institutional 
framework for policy formulation and implementation; inadequate conditions of 
service for civil service personnel; and political interference in the management of 
programmes and projects. 
Linkage Between Social and Economic Policies 
There is a strong relationship between social policy and economic policy. The 
relationship is based on the fact that, while economic policy promotes economic 
development objectives for the development of the economy, social policy 
promotes social development objectives such as the development of an equitable 
society. To achieve this objective, social policy prioritises poverty reduction, 
increased employment and societal cohesion (Moser, 1993). In this context social 
and economic policies provide complementary perspectives as to how social 
institutions, including markets, function. While economic policy is concerned with 
the efficient allocation of economic resources for increased productivity, social 
policy is concerned with the manner in which both the structure of society and its 
institutions determine the participation of different social groups in the development 
process. 
However, the analysis of the linkage between economic and social policies in 
Zambia has established that the economic difficulties the country has been 
experiencing during the past two decades have created an unfavourable environment 
for social policy. The on-going economic structural adjustment programme 
has undermined the capacity of the government to deliver social services. This is 
manifested in the reduction of government expenditure in the social sector in real 
terms in the recent years. Apparently, the reduction is based on the treasury model 
which contains assumptions which do not accurately reflect the relationship 
between economic policy and social policy. A top-down perspective has been 
adopted and the relationships are assumed to run from the economic sector to the 
social sector. 
Despite this trend, however, the government expenditure has increased in some 
sub-sectors of the social sector such as education and health. These sub-sectors 
have also enjoyed favourable expenditure from the donor funds. In addition, there 
has been a dramatic change in the social service delivery system in the recent years.
Social Policy and Research Environment in Zambia 39 
Most of the services are being provided through civil societies because they are 
evidently more efficient and accountable than government institutions and organisations. 
Social Policy 
Social research is an integral part of social policy formulation and implementation 
because it establishes the facts upon which informed policy decisions could be 
made. However, there are some strengths and gaps in the current state of social 
policy research practice in Zambia. 
The major strengths relate to the subject matter for research; research orientation; 
and the implications of the research findings. The focus of most studies 
undertaken between 1980 and 1995 had been on the growing incidenceof poverty 
in Zambia in its various manifestations. This has been a subject of great concern 
by the government and the civil societies. For instance, in 1993, the government 
established a national study fund to promote research on the incidence of poverty 
in Zambia and therefore, the subject matter for research has been relevant to social 
policy. Similarly, most of the studies could best be described as 'applied' oriented 
research with extensive use of survey and case study methods and techniques. The 
objective of most of the studies had been to analyse the problems and make policy 
recommendations on how to resolve theproblems. In this context, the studies could 
have facilitated policy formulation and implementation. Similarly, the methods 
and techniques used could enable one to have a better insight of the problems of 
concern. 
The major gaps are those relating to data analysis; presentation of findings; and 
the impact on social policy formulation and implementation. For most of the 
studies data analysis was inadequate, the findings were presented in the form of 
summaries of interview data, with no reflections on the data collected through other 
stated techniques such as participant and non-participation observations and focus 
group discussions. Similarly, the structure and contents of most of the study reports 
were grossly inadequate. For instance, information was amiss on the rationale for 
the sample sizes drawn, techniques of data analysis used, and possible limitations 
of the studies. Such information is necessary to enable one to make an intelligent 
judgment of the validity and reliability of the findings. The extent to which the 
findings have been utilised in the formulation and implementation of social 
policies is equally debatable. There has been no strong link between the research 
studies and potential users of the findings, as such information is amiss in the study 
reports. Most of the studies therefore could best be described as 'supply' oriented 
and not 'demand' oriented. This is partly due to the fact that most of the studies were 
externally initiated and funded.
40 GPCMasiye;R Tembo;B Chisanga;AMwanza 
Conclusion 
This paper has identified and analysed some pertinent issues on social policy and 
research environment in Zambia, arising from a recent study on the same theme. 
One interesting observation is that social policy in Zambia has been conceived in 
a narrow perspective, arising from the misconception between policy objectives 
and policy instruments. The other observation is that in the recent years, social 
policy and economic policy have not been conceived as complementary in nature 
in the context of national development. The economic policy has assumed a centre 
stage in policy formulation and of national development at the expense of social 
policy. Similarly, although social research has been recognised as an important 
ins trumentfor social policy formulation in Zambia, the extentto which the findings 
have been utilised in policy formulation is highly debatable, as there is no strong 
linkage between research activities and potential users of the research findings. 
Recommendations 
(1) There is a need to decentralise authority and responsibilitiesamong the 
key social policy actors within the hierarchy of government ministries and 
department, as well as to foster community participation in the identification 
of needs andresources for implementation of programmes and projects. 
(2) There is a need to rationalise and strengthen the institutional framework 
for the formulation and implementation of social policies with 
specific reference to the inter-organisational co-ordination among government 
ministries, and between government ministries and civil societies. 
This should be coupled with a continuous process of monitoring and 
analysis of social policies to remove contradictory tendencies between 
sectoral policy instruments. 
(3) Apart from identification of new priority areas for social research 
trough beneficiary assessment surveys, a comprehensive evaluation of the 
impact of social policy research on social policy practice needs to be 
undertaken. This is with specific reference to the utilisation of the findings 
on policy formulation and implementation. 
(4) As a long term measure, the structure and contents of the training 
courses in social research methods and techniques need to be reviewed and 
restructured to make them more effective and relevant to social policy 
Practice. In the short term, seminars and training workshops should be 
organised to exchange information and experiences among research institutions 
and organisations in the social policy field on research methods and 
techniques, and application of findings to social policy practice.
Social Policy and Research Environment in Zambia 41 
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