Journal of Social Development in Africa (1996), 11,2,57-72 
Environmental Protection and Economic 
Development in Zambia 
BERTHA Z OSEI-HWEDIE * 
ABSTRACT 
The 1980s saw a revitalised global realisation of the crucial interrelationship 
between environmental protection and sustainable development. Such global 
awareness helped some African governments to take action towards the control of 
environmental degradation. It is acknowledged that Africa faces two types of 
crises: the crisis of development and the crisis of environment. The two crises 
mutually cause and reinforce each other. 
However, in spite of the need for environmental protection, African governments 
are unable to commit adequate financial and human resources to control 
damage to the environment. The economic crisis in Africa, arising from declining 
export revenues and leading to structural adjustment programmes, has made both 
governments and the mass of population to concentrate more on economic survival 
than protection of the environment. This is the situation Zambia is faced with. 
Despite the government's efforts to control environmental degradation through 
enactment of a comprehensive environmental law and structures for that purpose, 
financial constraints and low priority accorded to this area in the face of an 
economic crisis makes it difficult to realise the goal of environmental protection. 
Introduction 
Environmental degradation, though a common characteristic of both developed 
and developing countries, has not received much attention by the governments of 
the latter. The initial assumption was that environmental problems were not 
prevalent in developing countries given the low levels of industrial growth. This, 
of course, has proved to be inaccurate. In actual fact, developing countries have 
been more preoccupied with promotion of industrialisation in order to catch up 
with the developed world, and to improve the livelihood of their people than with 
ensuring a habitable and healthy environment. This, coupled with inadequate 
resources at the disposal of developing countries, made it hard for them to commit 
themselves to environmental protection. Thus, the governments of the developing 
states did not see any linkage between economic development and a clean 
* Lecturer, Department of Political and Administrative Studies, University of 
Botswana, P Bag 0022, Gaborone, Botswana
58 Bertha Z Osei-Hwedie 
environment. However, the 1980s have seen remarkable appreciation of, and 
realisation for, environmental protection while simultaneously promoting economic 
development in Africa. It has been argued that sustainable economic 
development is intimately linked to the proper use of all natural resources without 
which prospects for a future development look bleak (Soussan, 1992). Increased 
global awareness of the linkage between environmental protection and sustainable 
development has prompted some African governments to take action towards 
control of environmental degradation. 
The paper reviews Zambia's environmental policy through the examination of 
the legal provisions for environment, administrative structures, limitations of the 
legal framework and ways of making environmental protection more effective. 
The Zambian government is faced with a dilemma in terms of the priority accorded 
to rapid industrial development and Zambia's dependence on the copper industry 
for her economic livelihood on one hand, and the need for a clean, healthy 
environment suitable for human habitation and sustainable development on the 
other. 
Development and Environment 
It has been acknowledged by scholars that contemporary Africa experiences two 
types of crises which are in a way related: the crisis of development and the crisis 
of environment. The crisis of development simply portrays Africa as characterised 
by poverty, growing economic inequalities, huge external debts, decline in world 
prices of export commodities resulting in balance of payment problems and 
inability to repay debts, decline in food production, illiteracy, infant mortality and 
short life expectancy among adults, and political instability (Adams, 1990:6-7; 
Rodney, 1972). 
According to Nyango'ro (1992), the current African environmental problems 
include: 
(a) deforestation which is a result of felling down of trees in order to 
provide firewood and charcoal which are the source of energy for poor 
urban and rural households; timber for construction purposes; clearing of 
land for crop and food cultivation and grazing land for domestic animals. 
Of major concern is the practice of shifting cultivation by rural subsistence 
fanners in which land is cleared and burnt for crop production; 
(b) desertification which is related to deforestation. It arises from extensive 
utilisation of the land through crop production, over-grazing and 
cutting down of forests. This causes the once productive land to become
Environment & Economic Development in Zambia 59 
bare, dry land unsuitable for human sustenance. Desertification has been 
more pronounced in the Sahel region; and 
(c) soil erosion which is caused by felling of trees, over-grazing, shifting 
cultivation and burning of forests which deprive the soil of its nutrients. 
This results in soil infertility which contributes to decline in agricultural 
production. In cases where food production is considerably affected, 
starvation and famine are the end result 
Literature on development and environment is extensive. However, there are 
differences in the focus of scholars. Conservationists and environmentalists 
primarily concern themselves with environmental issues while social scientists 
pay considerable attention to development. However, there are those who link the 
two. In fact studies about development and environment are so complementary that 
they highlight the same issues. 
The United Nations Conference on the Human Environment of 1972 highlighted 
global concern for environmental degradation, although the concern was 
for environmental problems of developed countries of the West, and the need for 
sustainable development there. The Conference emphasised the concept of sustainable 
development which establishes linkages between development and environment 
instead of analysing the two as distinct issues of human concern. Although 
the Conference did not specifically address the problems of environment and 
development of developing countries, it nonetheless created the United Nations 
Environment Programme (UNEP) and situated the offices of UNEP in Nairobi, 
Kenya. This move was not only meant to appease developing countries for 
neglecting consideration of their environmental problems at the Conference, but 
also to relegate environmental concerns to the bottom of UN priorities as Nairobi 
is far from the UN headquarters in New York (Adams, 1990). 
The Brundtland Commission Report of 1987 (quoted in Adams, 1990 and De 
la Court, 1990) avoided the mistake of treating in isolation issues of environment, 
economic development and human needs. The Report argues that developmental 
and environmental issues cannot be separated as the process of development 
negatively impacts on environmental resources on which they must draw from and 
environmental degradation undermines economic development programmes. 
Similarly, the Report illustrates a reciprocal relationship between poverty and 
environmental degradation: poverty is a major cause of (global) environmental 
problems just as environmental deterioration perpetuates the dismal conditions of 
the poor. Henceforth, the Report views sustainable development in terms of 
meeting present needs without undermining the choice of future generations to 
meet their basic needs as well. Accordingly, what is needed are environmental
60 Bertha Z Osei-Hwedie 
policies which facilitate the achievement of socioeconomic goals, especially the 
alleviation of poverty. The assumption here is that the eradication of poverty would 
in turn reduce environmental degradation. The Brundtland Report posits the 
viewpoint that poverty, high population growth rate and huge debt burdens prevent 
developing countries from adopting sound environmental policies designed to 
ensure a healthy environment. Therefore, the Report argues that there is need for 
increased flow of international financial assistance to developing countries for 
sustainable developmentprojects, improved terms of international trade, as well as 
transfer of technology which is environmentally friendly to the developing world. 
Without such inflows, the poor who are in majority would have no alternative 
except to over-utilise the available resources, thereby endangering the environment. 
Blaikie (quoted in Adams, 1990:87-88) lends credence to the views put forward 
by the Brundtland Commission. Blaikie illustrates a vicious circle of poverty and 
environmental degradation on the one hand, and environmental deterioration and 
economic development on the other. He highlights the social, political and 
economic issues arising from environmental degradation and development For 
instance, environmental deterioration, in the form of soil erosion worsens the 
prospects of the poor for better conditions of a livelihood. Likewise, economic 
development causes environmental problems, just as maintaining the quality of environment 
undermines promotion of economic development Similarly, land degradation 
frustrates efforts at development by making itdifficult for the government 
to deliver public goods. 
It has been widely acknowledged, even by the UN Conference of 1972, that 
environmental degradation is a product of the process of development. Development 
not only results in industrial pollution but also in unequal benefits to various 
individuals and groups within society. Developing countries, in general either lack 
environmental laws or have weak antipollution legislation which are commonly 
practised in the industrialised countries. This makes developing countries attractive 
investment areas for multinational corporations of the West anxious to avoid 
strongerpollution controls in their home countries (Adams, 1990:115). Mostof the 
multinational corporations invest in mineral and manufacturing industries in the 
developing countries. 
What is suggested is not only for developing countries to adopt effective 
antipollution provisions and action but that development planning should assess 
the effects of projects and programmes on natural resources and environment. This 
would entail quantification of damages and benefits of each project and technology. 
It is in this respect that international aid agencies could assist in monitoring 
the effects of projects on the environment. Developing countries depend on 
multilateral and bilateral aid organisations to finance and plan development
Environment & Economic Development in Zambia 61 
projects. At the identification and appraisal stage of development planning, 
international financial institutions could assist in environmental impact assessment 
of projects. Indeed, the World Bank has been identified as one of those 
institutions which take into account environmental impact of projects appraised 
and funded by it in developing countries. Although the World Bank environmental 
impact assessment of projects is not faultless, it has nevertheless encouraged 
governments of developing countries to adopt policies designed to protect the 
environment for sustainable development as part of its 'market friendly approach' 
to development (World Bank, 1991). 
It is, however, acknowledged that it is difficult to assess the environmental 
impact of projects, especially in the developing countries due to a number of 
factors. These include the fact that it is difficult to identify the nature of impacts on 
the environment at any time and in any area. There is the likelihood that impacts 
would be delayed instead of manifesting themselves immediately at the time of assessment. 
More important, "lack of environmental data" due to "lackofecologists 
and other scientists" compounds the problems of accurate assessment of environmental 
impacts of development projects (Adams, 1990:151). 
Zambian Economy 
A close examination of the Zambian economy gives sufficient background to 
environmental problems there. At Independence, Zambia inherited a 'dual' economy 
with a developed export enclave sector based on copper production and a 
backwards rural or agricultural sector. This made Zambia a mono-economy 
dependent on copper for export earnings and revenue for government public 
expenditure. This situation still prevails. Copper yields 90% of Zambia's export 
earnings. Thus, it is an engine of development. This makes it imperative for the 
government to retain and attract foreign investment in the copper industry through 
incentives and inducements, including legislation. Indeed some provisions of 
legislation make it less costly to invest in the Zambian copper mines. For example, 
the Mines and Mineral Act shielded the copper mining companies from any 
financial liabilities arising from health problems associated with industrial problems. 
Therefore, Zambia, compared to industrialised countries with provision for 
legal compensation for pollution-related sickness, spared companies enormous 
financial hardships. 
Other minerals mined in Zambia include lead, zinc, bauxite, cobalt, and 
amethyst. The government draws financial resources from the mines through 
mineral taxes, mineral export taxes and income tax. The mineral tax is levied as 
follows: 51% for copper; 20% for lead, zinc, and cobalt; and 10% for amethyst, 
beryl silver, gold and bismuth. In 1987, the government imposed mineral export
62 Bertha Z Osei-Hwedie 
tax on all exports for sale on the international market. Since 1987, the Mineral 
Export tax had been set at 11 % of the Kwacha value of exports and sale of minerals. 
In the case of income tax, it is levied at 50% of assessible income after deduction 
of mineral and mineral export taxes, and financing of prospecting and explorations 
(Mutemerewa, 1991:13-14). 
The Zambian government's task at Independence was to restructure the economy 
in order to end dependence on the copper mines, and to use the revenue from 
copper sales for diversification of the economy. Five year development plans and 
economic reforms adopted since then were designed for this purpose. The Matero 
Economic Reforms of 1969 resulted in the government purchasing 51% shares 
from the Anglo American Corporation (AAC) and Roan Selection Trust (RST) 
leading to partial nationalisation of the copper industry. The AAC and RST 
retained 49% of the shares. The AAC and RTS were renamed Nchanga Consolidated 
Copper Mines (NCCM) and Roan Consolidated Copper Mines (RCM) 
respectively. The NCCM and RCM were subsequently integrated into the Zambia 
Consolidated Copper Mines (ZCCM). These measures were directed at retaining 
within Zambia, revenue earned by the copper industry for the purpose of financing 
diversification of the economy and at reducing the outflow of funds overseas by the 
AAC and RST. 
Agricultural development is undertaken through state farms, private commercial 
farms, and subsistence farming. The emphasis has been on modernisation of 
agriculture through mechanisation, improved seeds and chemical fertilizers. 
Agricultural development is seen as important for a number of reasons: as a means 
of improving the livelihood of the majority of the population who depend on 
agriculture, especially in rural areas; boosting food production; providing raw 
materials to local industries; and as an alternative source of foreign exchange. 
Economic reforms initiated by President Kaunda further paved the way for 
diversification of the economy. The Mulungushi Economic Reforms of 1968 
allowed the government to acquire 51 % shares from private retail firms, transportation, 
industry and other manufacturing firms. The Industrial Development 
Corporation (INDECO), a semi-state company, was created by the government for 
this purpose. Zambia experienced rapid industrial growth through the establishment 
of manufacturing industries. This is especially true following the 1968 
economic reforms which allowed for state participation in economic development. 
The state, through INDECO, set up many manufacturing industries mostly in urban 
areas with very few situated in peri-urban and rural areas. These include among 
others, Chilanga Cement, Zambia Clay, Zambia Sugar, Kafue Textiles, Nitrogen 
Chemicals, Maize Milling, Explosive Manufacturing and Battery Plant. However, 
neither the agricultural nor the manufacturing sector has been able to replace the 
mining industry as the lead sector in the economy because government still accords 
priority to the copper sector.
Environment & Economic Development in Zambia 63 
Up to the 1970s, the Zambian economy experienced growth. However, the fall 
in world copper prices since the mid-1970s has brought untold hardships in 
Zambia, resulting in reduced government expenditure in manufacturing and 
agricultural industries and social services, rising unemployment, balance of 
payment problems and external debts. The change of government and economic 
policy in 1991 to a liberalised market economy has not resolved Zambia's 
economic crisis. Rapid population growth and urbanisation have compounded 
Zambia's economic problems. Zambia has the highest rate of urbanisation in sub- 
Saharan Africa. In 1992, Zambia's urban population made up 42% of the total 
population compared to 29% in 1969 (Country Profile, Zambia, 1993/4). One 
consequence of a high rate of urbanisation is the growth of shanty townships due 
to shortage of housing. Thus, both industry and population exert tremendous 
pressure on the environment. 
Environmental Problems in Zambia 
Industrialisation, urbanisation and population growth have serious negative consequences 
on the environment as each makes demands on natural resources. Every 
sector of the economy causes some environmental problems. The mining sector 
and manufacturing industries cause serious pollution, with mines the biggest 
polluters of the environment. This is especially true in areas such as the Copperbelt, 
Central and Lusaka provinces where mining and manufacturing are concentrated. 
The operations of these enterprises cause environmental degradation through 
pollution of the atmosphere, water and land. Consequently the mining sector and 
manufacturing industries have been identified as the most important pollutants of 
the atmosphere and water, and land degradation in Zambia (Chipungu & Kunda, 
1994:51). 
Mining Sector 
The mining industry pollutes the atmosphere by releasing sulphur dioxide (SO2). 
The mining of copper, which contains sulphide, produces large amounts of sulphur 
dioxide into the atmosphere during the smelting of copper. According to Chipungu 
& Kunda (1994), the sulphur dioxide discharged by the ZCCM mines exceeds the 
WHO's acceptable standard. It is the threat posed by sulphur dioxide to human life 
which is of great concern. Sulphur dioxide is hazardous to people's health, 
damages the ecosystem, vegetation and infrastructure. Sulphur dioxide is responsible 
for bronchial, eye and skin diseases, especially for residents of the area where 
the mines are situated. Chipungu & Kunda (1994:52), cite Konkola township in 
Mufulira as the hardest hit by sulphur dioxide emissions, where residents are 
reported to suffer from respiratory diseases, are unable to grow vegetables in their 
backyards, and have paint peeling off from their houses.
64 Bertha Z Osei-Hwedie 
In addition to air pollution, copper mines cause water pollution. The waste 
product produced during the mining process is disposed into rivers, especially the 
Kafue River and its tributaries on the CopperbelL Such wastes include heavy 
chemical metals like mercury. The Kafue River, which stretches from the Copperbelt 
to the Central Province, is not only a dumping ground for waste products from 
the mines, but also a source of water and fish for households. It is argued that rivers 
on the Copperbelt have a high copper content which is 80 times higher that the 
accepted standard. This poses danger to both humans and animals. Mining also 
causes land deterioration. Not only is the waste dumped into rivers, it is also 
disposed of on land. Such solid wastes include waste rocks, tailings (slimes), slag 
and toxic hazardous chemical wastes. Waste causes land sterilisation, making land 
unproductive and creating ugly scenery of dumps in mining towns. In the rainy 
season, the dumps become muddy and sometimes are washed away by rain into surrounding 
watersuppliesand farmlands/gardens (Moyo.O'Keefe& Sills, 1993:281). 
Open pit mining at some Zambian mines, like at Mufulira, causes damage to the 
environment in the form of caving in of land. Holes excavated to mine copper 
permanently scar the landscape and make it unproductive. Additionally, it is 
argued that the 1970 Mufulira disaster in which 100 miners died due to the collapse 
of the mine was a result of, "...piling of excessive waste material over excavated 
areas" (Lewis & Berry, 1988:372). 
Manufacturing Industries 
Like copper mining, manufacturing industries also cause air, water and land 
pollution. The most important industries which cause environmental problems are 
those which produce fertilizers, clothing, shoes and cement. The Nitrogen Chemicals, 
located in Kafue, Central Province, is the major source of pollutants. It is 
common to see a brown smoke covering the town of Kafue. Moyo,O'Keefe& Sills 
(1993:282) argue that 40 tonnes of nitric oxide per day are discharged into the 
atmosphere. Regrettably, nothing much has been done to ameliorate the situation 
there. 
Dust is another pollutant of the atmosphere. Operations of Chilanga Cement 
naturally discharge cement dust while Ndola Lime lets out lime dust, just as 
quarrying releases a lot of dust into the air as a result of crushing stones. And so do 
maize milling companies and road construction. Dust is not only an irritant but also 
causes health problems. Common ailments from dust are sneezing, coughing and 
bronchitis (Chipungu & Kunda,1994:32). 
Similarly, waste from industrial plants is thrown into the Kafue River endangering 
human and animal life through contamination of water and food (eg, fish). For 
example, Kafue Textiles dumps its chemical waste from dyeing cloth into the 
Kafue River. Bata Shoe Company also releases chromium waste from the tannery
Environment & Economic Development in Zambia 65 
into the Kafue River (Chipungu & Kunda, 1994:33-34). Different opinions have 
been advanced regarding pollution levels in the Kafue River. Although Moyo, 
O'Keefe & Sills (1993:282-83) state that the level of industrial pollutants in the 
Kafue River is "within acceptable international standards", the Sunday Times of 
Zambia (2 May, 1993:3) concludes that there is a high level of pollution in the river 
as a result of dumping of industrial waste and that there is no proper treatment of 
toxicity, while Chipungu & Kunda (1994:31) argue that industrial waste have 
made the river "entrophised leaving it inaccessible to navigation." 
Agricultural Sector 
The primary source of pollution in agriculture is the use of chemical fertilizers and 
pesticides. Most food and cash crops grown in Zambia require fertilizers and 
pesticides to ensure a good harvest, especially of maize, cotton and tobacco. In the 
1992/93 season, for example, Zambia used 450,000 metric tonnes of fertilizer 
compared to 150,000 metric tonnes, 20 years ago. Zambia's commercial fanners 
are reported to utilise the largest amount of fertilizers compared to other southern 
African farmers. Simlilarly, there has been an increase in the use of pesticides in 
agriculture and public health control programmes. In 1993, Zambia used 300 
different pesticides compared to 200 in 1992 (Chipungu & Kunda, 1994:57-58). 
However, although chemical fertilizers, and pesticides result in increased national 
harvests, they pose a danger to the environment. In addition, the use of DDT, which 
is no longer used in developed countries, is detrimental to land as it kills soil 
nutrients and is likely to be washed into rivers thereby contaminating water (Moyo, 
O'Keefe & Sills, 1993:298). 
Farming practices especially by subsistence farmers are not conducive to conservation 
of natural resources, and in most cases cause soil erosion, deforestation 
and loss of pasture land. According to Moyo.O'Keefe & Sills (1993:278), the most 
important damage to land is in the form of soil erosion. The Government of Zambia 
(1985:7) also notes that soil erosion is becoming commonplace throughout 
Zambia. The custom of burning trees and grass in preparation forplanting of crops 
not only pollutes the air but also exposes the soil to the heat of the sun and rain. The 
chitemene system of cultivation commonly used in the Northern Province of 
Zambia is a good illustration. The chitemene system, which involves cutting down 
of trees and burning of trees and grass, has traditionally been a way of fertilizing 
the soil. However, cutting down of trees and burning them leaves the soil bare of 
grass or trees or any another vegetation making it vulnerable to caking from the 
sun's heat and erosion. Similarly, cutting down of trees in the chitemene agriculture 
causes deforestation. The Weekly Post (5 November, 1993:9) reports that 
chitemene is the major cause of deforestation in Zambia accounting for 97% of 
Zambia's annual deforestation and loss of 75,000 hectares of woodland annually.
66 Bertha Z Osei-Hwedie 
Household needs for energy are another source of deforestation, soil erosion and 
air pollution. Trees are cut down for use as wood fuel or charcoal in poor rural and 
urban households. Use of firewood and charcoal as fuel is widespread among the 
low- and middle-income homesteads due to rising costs of electricity and decline 
in the purchasing power of the local currency, the Kwacha. It is reported that high 
demand for charcoal in urban Zambia causes deforestation as 43,000 hectares of 
forest were cut down in Lusaka in 1990 alone. The Copperbelt suffers the same 
high deforestation as Lusaka (The Weekly Post, 5 November, 1993:9). 
Overgrazing also contributes to soil erosion and bare landscapes devoid of trees 
and grass. This problem is acute in cattle-keeping areas of Southern, Central and 
Eastern provinces, and especially in communal grazing areas. Overcrowding of 
cattle on grazing land destroys vegetation and soil. Such damage to the environment 
arises as a result of an increase in number of cattle grazing in a particular area 
eating vegetation, tree seedlings, grass, leaves, and stepping on them as they move 
about. Another reason for over-grazing stems from the fact that cattle owners 
seldom sell or consume cattle, hence an increase in cattle population. Scarcity of 
good pasture land exacerbates the problem of over-grazing (Government of 
Zambia, 1985; Moyo, O'Keefe & Sills, 1993; The Weekly Post, 5 November, 
1993). 
Legal and Institutional Framework 
The promulgation of environmental laws is the initiative of the government. This 
initiative is influenced by three factors: the need to conserve natural resources 
through control of pollution; complaints from pollution sufferers in mining 
localities; and pressure from international aid donor agencies. However, it is not 
necessarily a result of interest group pressure on government policy makers to take 
action with respect to the environmental situation. 
The Zambian government started late in its efforts to initiate national legislation 
to protect the environment. The emphasis was more on protection of mining 
companies and other foreign firms than the environment. As previously noted, the 
Mines and Mineral Act indemnifies the copper mining companies from prosecution 
for causing pollution-related health problems in order to safeguard their 
financial solvency by not compensating victims of its pollution (Sunday Times of 
Zambia, 2 May, 1993:3). Attempts are being made by the Ministry of Environment 
and Natural Resources to change the Act to make the copper mining companies 
liable for prosecution by any individual or group affected by pollution. Efforts by 
the Ministry to invalidate the law which grants immunity against prosecution for 
pollution problems were a result of complaints from victims in mining towns 
(Sunday Times of Zambia, 2 May, 1993:3).
Environment & Economic Development in Zambia 67 
Although Zambia has been independent since October 1964, it was only in the 
late 1980s that government put in motion efforts towards environmental protection. 
The United National Independence Party (UNIP) government of President 
Kaunda launched the National Conservation Strategy for Zambia in 1985. This was 
merely a preliminary step towards protection of the environment because the 
emphasis was on clarification of government intentions of conserving Zambia's 
natural resources; identification of the environmental problems; and commitment 
to control degradation of the environment. However, the 1985 Conservation 
Strategy for Zambia laid the groundwork for national legislation and administrative 
structures for dealing with environment-related issues. The passage of the 
Environmental Protection and Pollution Control Act No 12 of 1990 by the Zambian 
parliament provided a single and comprehensive national legislative and administrative 
structure for environmental protection. This Act made Zambia one of the 
few, in southern Africa, with a comprehensive environmental law.and institutional 
structures responsible for the environment. 
The Act provides, among other things: 
• regulations for protection of environment and control of pollution; 
• establishment of structures to implement and enforce the provisions of the 
Act, functions and powers of such structures. The Environmental Council 
of Zambia (ECZ) is the most important organ responsible for all matters 
concerning the environment in the country, be it in the public or private 
sector; and 
• offences and penalties of polluters outlined in sections dealing with water, 
air, noise or chemical pollution. 
Hence, the Act's main objective is to harmonise the needs of human beings and the 
environment by reducing damage to the environment. Before the enactment of the 
Act, each industry or authority monitored pollution in respective areas of activity. 
Thus, the Mines and Mineral Act, Factories Act and Town and Country Planning 
Act were to guide respective organisations in the monitoring and control of levels 
of pollution. In reality they did not. 
The Movement for Multi-party Democracy (MMD) government, which has 
been in power since 1991 under the leadership of President Chiluba, has continued 
with its predecessor's efforts at protection of environment. In particular, the MMD 
government formed the Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources in 1992. 
This in itself demonstrates the importance attached to the environment by the 
government and commitment to resolving environmental problems. In addition to
68 Bertha Z Osei-Hwedie 
regulations, the MMD government formulated a National Environmental Action 
Plan which was approved by the Cabinet in December 1994. The main objectives 
of the National Environmental Action plan are to identify environmental problems 
and issues; analyse their causes and recommend appropriate action with a view to 
resolving environmental problems and issues. The National Environmental Action 
Plan aims at putting forward an implementation strategy for each sector of the 
economy, outlining specific action required in each sector, identifying priority 
sectors and time frame for implementation of strategy for dealing with environmental 
problems. 
Functions and Structures of the ECZ 
An examination of the functions and structures of the ECZ would illuminate the 
extent of its powers, functions and limitations in accomplishing its tasks. Section 
6 of the Act empowers the ECZ to undertake several functions, including to: 
coordinate the activities of all ministries and other bodies concerned with the 
protection of the environment; advise the government on al 1 matters relating to any 
environmental conservation, protection and pollution control including policies, 
research, investigations and training; undertake studies and make recommendations 
on the standards relating to the improvement of environment and maintenance 
of sound ecological systems; monitor trends in the use of natural resources 
and impact on the environment; undertake environmental educational programmes 
for the purpose of creating an enlightened public opinion regarding the environment, 
and making the public aware of their role in the protection of and improvement 
of the environment; and draw up and enforce regulations related to water 
pollution, air and noise pollution, pesticides and toxic substances, waste management 
and natural resources management (Chipungu & Kunda 1994). 
The ECZ has made some accomplishments. To date the ECZ has already 
formulated regulations dealing with Waste Management, Water Pollution Control, 
and Pesticides and Toxic Substances. These regulations are dealt with separately 
in the Act. The activities which are currently being undertaken include the 
formulation of regulations on air pollution and noise abatement and natural 
resource use; enforcement of regulations; formulation of wetland development and 
management policy; preparation of sectoral land use guidelines; formulation of an 
environmental impact assessment policy; preparation of development projects 
screening guidelines; environmental data collection, documentation and publication; 
networking with national and international environmental protection organisations; 
and education and awareness campaigns (ECZ, Booklet, undated). 
The composition of the ECZ is such that it facilitates consultation and cooperation 
between affected organisations and individuals. Membership to the ECZ is
Environment & Economic Development in Zambia 69 
drawn from representatives of institutions, both public and private, and any other 
persons whose activities impinge on protection of the environment and proper 
management of natural resources. Thus, government ministries, private companies 
or parastatals and individuals make up the ECZ. Ultimately the ECZ is accountable 
to the Ministry of En vironment and Natural Resources. Day-to-day activities of the 
ECZ are carried out by the Directorate headed by the Director. The Directorate has 
four units under its command, namely, Environmental Inspectorate, Environmental 
Planning and Management, Legal Counsel, and Administration and Accounts. 
The Act empowers the Inspectorate to administer, enforce and monitor 
compliance with provisions for environmental protection and pollution control, 
and to undertake research (ECZ, Booklet, undated). The inspectors have the power 
of entry, search and examination of the premises; however, they do not possess the 
power of arrest and seizure of anything from any premises searched (Chipungu & 
Kunda, 1994:94). 
Evaluation of the ECZ 
Although the Act has noble intentions, successful administration, enforcement and 
monitoring of regulations, to ensure protection of the environment and pollution 
control might prove to be problematic. Admittedly the ECZ has been able to 
formulate regulations; however, its functions are too numerous while the resource 
base to support such functions is limited. Therefore, implementation of the 
provisions of the Act faces a number of difficulties. One of the primary obstacles 
to effective enforcement of the Act is resources, both financial and manpower. Like 
any public body in Zambia, the ECZ depends on government grants for financial 
resources. A government faced with financial constraints would not allocate 
substantial resources to environment at the expense of development projects. In 
view of the current economic crisis in Zambia arising from reduced revenue from 
copper which causes huge budget deficits, the government is unlikely to provide 
all the funds required by the ECZ. The IMF-induced reduction of government 
subsidies and government spending means that the service sector, like the ECZ, 
suffers the most. The ECZ concedes that the government grant is inadequate which 
in effect reduces its ability to fulfil its functions. As a result, the ECZ has currently 
imposed a freeze on manpower recruitment. Similarly, financial constraints also 
suggest that the ECZ may not be in a position to recruit and retain skilled, 
experienced manpower like ecologists, economists, scientists, and technologists 
on whom sound environmental administration depends. 
Two alternative sources of funding exist for the ECZ: penalty fees paid by 
polluters and international aid agencies. The Act provides for fines ranging from 
K50,000 to K200.000, and imprisonment for a period of up to three years as well
70 Bertha Z Osei-Hwedie 
as daily monetary penalties for continuing offences. In addition, heads of businesses 
are also liable to prosecution if proven guilty by a court of law. These 
penalties were intended to deter would-be polluters. However, while the fine might 
have been reasonable in 1990, they are too low to be effective given the continued 
devaluation of the Kwacha. This makes enforcement of the Act costly and deprives 
the ECZ an alternative source of funds. It is plausible that the government might 
have been reluctant then to impose stiffer penalties because the copper mines and 
manufacturing industries were mostly government-owned. This brings up the 
question of whether or not the ECZ can impartially and effectively monitor 
pollution levels in copper mines on which Zambia depends, and manufacturing 
industries. The situation is likely to change once privatisation of former stateowned 
industries and mines is complete. 
International aid agencies like CIDA, NORAD, and western governments of 
Sweden and Netherlands which have provided grants in the past for preparation 
and publication of reports about the environment in Zambia, could be an alternative 
source of funds. This would require the Zambian government to negotiate such 
assistance for the ECZ. 
Another problem lies with the requirement for public educational programmes 
to make people aware of environmental degradation and their role in protecting it. 
This in itself is commendable given the fact that the ECZ is still in its infancy and 
in the process of acquiring experience in dealing with environmental problems. 
Furthermore, this suggests that the ECZ would have to rely on the public attitudes 
towards proper land management, especially by peasants or subsistence farmers in 
the use of chemicals like pesticides and toxic substances. This is even more 
imperative given inadequate manpower at ECZ. Therefore, public education 
programmes are very important. Currently, the environmental educational programmes, 
both formal and informal, are undertaken by the ECZ and institutions of 
learning, ministries and non-governmental organizations. Each follows its own 
syllabus without much coordination. It is not clear whether or not such education 
reaches the mass of peasants or includes input from the public. Past experience 
suggests that ideas or programmes from above (government or otherwise), rarely 
succeed unless the grassroots are involved in initiation. 
Ideally, educational campaigns would be more fruitful if they included policy 
makers involved in the planning of development projects. This is important in so 
far as determination of environmental impact of projects at initial planning stages 
is concerned. Currently, relatively little attention is paid by policy makers to actual 
and potential impacts on environment by development projects. Evaluations of 
development projects are guided mostly by economic criteria. The ECZ efforts are 
directed at making Environmental Impact Assessment part of development planning. 
However, at present, the ECZ is still in the process of formulating regulations
Environment & Economic Development in Zanjbia 71 
dealing with impact on environment to guide development planners- The proposed 
Batoka Hydroelectric Scheme is the only well-known project to have been 
subjected to extensive study about potential impacts on environment (Chipungu & 
Kunda, 1994:109). 
The biggest drawback to public educational programmes is the economic 
condition. In view of the crippling economic situation prevailing in Zarflbia, the 
people and the government do not accord environmental issues a very high priority. 
Both are more preoccupied with economic survival, even to the extent of damaging 
the environment. Furthermore, as a corporate body accountable lo the Ministry of 
Environment and Natural Resources, the ECZ is likely to be constrained in 
implementation of its functions. There is need to streamline the responsibilities of 
the ECZ and the Ministry to avoid duplication and conflict, especially interference 
from the Ministry. It is common in Zambia for ministries to interfere in operations 
of corporations or parastatal organizations under their jurisdiction- 
A closer look at the Act suggests the need for amendment of those portions 
which limit effective implementation. For example, whereas inspectors have the 
power of entry, search and examination of premises, they do not possess the powers 
of arrest, prosecution, seizure and forfeiture from premises searched. However, 
efforts are currently under way to amend the Act for the purpose of according 
inspectors these powers (Chipungu & Kunda, 1994:94). 
Finally, the Act would be more effective if amendment to it were made in 
conjunction with changes to other laws dealing with the use of natural resources. 
Such laws relating to landownership and use could provide incentives for proper 
use of farmland, pasture land and other natural resources and completnent efforts 
of the ECZ to protect the environment and control land degradation. 
Conclusion 
Undoubtedly, sustainable development requires governments to intervene effectively 
to ensure proper use of natural resources to limit environmental cjegradation. 
This is no easy task and brings to the fore problems faced by poverty-stricken and 
resource-scarce countries like Zambia. Economic development and environmental 
protection are mutually inclusive goals of a good livelihood. However, tension 
arises when both compete for scarce natural resources and wheii survival takes 
precedence over environmental protection as is the case in Zambia currently. The 
acknowledgement and importance attached to control of deterioration of the 
environment is symbolised by the enactment of a national environmental law. The 
Act is comprehensive in that it covers all sectors ofthe economy and all types of 
environmental degradation, including water, air, land and noise pollution. However, 
implementation ofthe Act would be the biggest test of Zambia's commitment
72 Bertha Z Osei-Hwedie 
to sustainable development. However the economic crisis in Zambia points to the 
likelihood that environmental issues would remain relegated into the background 
in spite of the declared policy ofthe government. 
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